ion


warning neg ions

i figured out a key feature to ice age model, the Hutchinson effect, and induction of earth core eating.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hf5DOpWtRfg#
Bushman tells the secret.

Walter Lewin gives the physics,

freethisone

modified for our present increasing electric field. this confirms volcanic eruption, how the induction force is a simple rise in the local electric field.  That causes red shift, and gravitational lens :P :cool: effect.

instead of  particles we have the electric field itself.  A rise or move to a  higher magnitude. this explained

Quote from freethisone on November 26th, 2014, 10:24 PM

modified for our present increasing electric field. this confirms volcanic eruption, how the induction force is a simple rise in the local electric field.  That causes red shift, and gravitational lens :P :cool: effect.

instead of  particles we have the electric field itself.  A rise or move to a  higher magnitude. this explained

this is a explanation of Tesla radiant energy. it is there, it is present as the electric field.. point charges give rise to movement. we only need to compare our sun mass, and current energy rate, and color. total energy of point charge, sun.
what is missing from the equation?


i add sun 1 = x energy radiation. i place it in an electric field of higher potential.  what will now happen?

i add one solar mass ,and the point charge locally is magnified times two.  how does that effect the suns mass, and energy?

i now force them together at a high rate of speed, they repel due to magnetic suspension  what have we learned? a superconducting electric field creates magnetic suspension on conducting material, a planet, or a  single  tiny carbon atom..

how did bushman describe it?  with the words, he has Tesla coils, he has Van de Graaff generator.
we act on the electric field by raising the potential ,or by manipulating the charge on that surface. eddy currents give rise due to cassimire effect. the acceleration of point charges together. cause induction on small radius objects.

do you have what it takes to prove expertly this is the case?  experiments are as followed in the air charge accumulator thread.

i have raised the local electric field by adding mass, and charge. if i wish i can now accelerate together to cause thermal induction vector charges, the effect of torque times delta T.,

the cooling of space, or the increasing point charge by adding mass into this electric field.

by adding domes like a Van de Graaff generator can we increase the local electric field, and cause attraction , or inductions in object near these charges, the electric field will re distribute the charges and adds to the total energy of that field.

the density of charge will cause expansion to takes place, be it atoms, or planets. radial waves in the electric field set up nodal points of waves with peak energy, and low energy. a moving point charge will accelerate to find equilibrium with said charges.

spark gap distance causes the resulting charge to manifest, and break down to form a spark. these sparks discharge to cause equilibrium with all objects in said field.

the more mass point charges we add the greater the pressure charge density becomes on said small radius objects.

in the case of air charge accumulator the more foil i add, the greater the pressure of said charge is available to do work.
coal car analogy. O:-)

"How I Control Gravitation"
by
T.T. Brown
Science & Invention (August 1929) / Psychic Observer 37(1)
There is a decided tendency in the physical sciences to unify the great basic laws and to relate, by a single structure or mechanism, such individual phenomena as gravitation, electrodynamics and even matter itself. It is found that matter and electricity are very closely related in structure. In the final analysis matter loses its traditional individuality and becomes merely an "electrical condition." In fact, it might be said that the concrete body of the universe is nothing more than an assemblage of energy which, in itself, is quite intangible.


as early as 1923, and began at that time to construct the necessary theoretical bridge between the two then separate phenomena, electricity and gravitation. The first actual demonstration of the relation was made in 1924. Observations were made of the individual and combined motions of two heavy lead balls which were suspended by wires 45 cm. apart. The balls were given opposite electrical charges and the charges were maintained. Sensitive optical methods were employed in measuring the movements, and as near as could be observed the balls appeared to behave according to the following law: "Any system of two bodies possesses a mutual and unidirectional force (typically in the line of the bodies) which is directly proportional to the product of the masses, directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them."
The peculiar result is that the gravitational field of the Earth had no apparent connection with the experiment. The gravitational factors entered through the consideration of the mass of the electrified bodies.
The newly discovered force was quite obviously the resultant physical effect of an electro-gravitational interaction. It represented the first actual evidence of the very basic relationship. The force was named "gravitator action" for want of a better term and the apparatus or system of masses employed was called a "gravitator."


my suggestion if you want to know more read the entire excerpt.

:grouphug:

by
T.T. Brown
Science & Invention (August 1929) / Psychic Observer 37(1)
There is a decided tendency in the physical sciences to unify the great basic laws and to relate, by a single structure or mechanism, such individual phenomena as gravitation, electrodynamics and even matter itself. It is found that matter and electricity are very closely related in structure. In the final analysis matter loses its traditional individuality and becomes merely an "electrical condition." In fact, it might be said that the concrete body of the universe is nothing more than an assemblage of energy which, in itself, is quite intangible. Of course, it is self-evident that matter is connected with gravitation and it follows logically that electricity is likewise connected. These relations exist in the realm of pure energy and consequently are very basic in nature. In all reality they constitute the true backbone of the universe. It is needless to say that the relations are not simple, and full understanding of their concepts is complicated by the outstanding lack of information and research on the real nature of gravitation.
The theory of relativity introduced a new and revolutionary light to the subject by injecting a new conception of space and time. Gravitation thus becomes the natural outcome of so-called "distorted space." It loses its Newtonian interpretation as a tangible mechanical force and gains the rank of an "apparent" force, due merely to the condition of space itself.
Fields in space are produced by the presence of material bodies or electric charges. They are gravitational fields or electric fields according to their causes. Apparently they have no connection one with the other. This fact is substantiated by observations to the effect that electric fields can be shielded and annulled while gravitational fields are nearly perfectly penetrating. This dissimilarity has been the chief hardship to those who would compose a Theory of Combination.
It required Dr. Einstein's own close study for a period of several years to achieve the results others have sought in vain and to announce with certainty the unitary field laws.
Einstein's field theory is purely mathematical. It is not based on the results of any laboratory test and does not, so far as known, predict any method by which an actual demonstration or proof may be made. The new theory accomplishes its purpose by "rounding out" the accepted Principles of Relativity so as to embrace electrical phenomena.
The Theory of Relativity thus supplemented represents the last word in mathematical physics. It is most certainly a theoretical structure of overpowering magnitude and importance. The thought involved is so far reaching that it may be many years before the work is fully appreciated and understood.
Early Investigations ~
The writer and his colleagues anticipated the present situation even as early as 1923, and began at that time to construct the necessary theoretical bridge between the two then separate phenomena, electricity and gravitation. The first actual demonstration of the relation was made in 1924. Observations were made of the individual and combined motions of two heavy lead balls which were suspended by wires 45 cm. apart. The balls were given opposite electrical charges and the charges were maintained. Sensitive optical methods were employed in measuring the movements, and as near as could be observed the balls appeared to behave according to the following law: "Any system of two bodies possesses a mutual and unidirectional force (typically in the line of the bodies) which is directly proportional to the product of the masses, directly proportional to the potential difference and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them."
The peculiar result is that the gravitational field of the Earth had no apparent connection with the experiment. The gravitational factors entered through the consideration of the mass of the electrified bodies.
The newly discovered force was quite obviously the resultant physical effect of an electro-gravitational interaction. It represented the first actual evidence of the very basic relationship. The force was named "gravitator action" for want of a better term and the apparatus or system of masses employed was called a "gravitator."
Figure 1 ~
 
Since the time of the first test the apparatus and the methods used have been greatly improved and simplified. Cellular "gravitators" have taken the place of the large balls of lead. Rotating frames supporting two and four gravitators have made possible acceleration measurements. Molecular gravitators made of solid blocks of massive dielectric have given still greater efficiency. Rotors and pendulums operating under oil have eliminated atmospheric considerations as to pressure, temperature and humidity. The disturbing effects of ionization, electron emission and pure electro-statics have likewise been carefully analyzed and eliminated. Finally after many years of tedious work and with refinement of methods we succeeded in observing the gravitational variations produced by the moon and sun and much smaller variations produced by the different planets. It is a curious fact that the effects are most pronounced when the affecting body is in the alignment of the differently charged elements and least pronounced when it is at right angles.
Much of the credit for this research is due to Dr. Paul Biefield, Director of Swazey Observatory. The writer is deeply indebted to him for his assistance and for his many valuable and timely suggestions.
Gravitator Action an Impulse ~
Let us take, for example, the case of a gravitator totally immersed in oil but suspended so as to act as a pendulum and swing along the line of its elements.
Figure 2 ~
 
When the direct current with high voltage (75-300 kilovolts) is applied the gravitator swings up the arc until its propulsive force balances the force of the earth's gravity resolved to that point, then it stops, but it does not remain there. The pendulum then gradually returns to the vertical or starting position even while the potential is maintained. The pendulum swings only to one side of the vertical. Less than five seconds is required for the test pendulum to reach the maximum amplitude of the swing but from thirty to eighty seconds are required for it to return to zero.
Figure 3 ~
 
The total time or duration of the impulse varies with such cosmic conditions as the relative position and distance of the moon, sun and so forth. It is in no way affected by fluctuations in the supplied voltage and averages the same for every mass or material under test. The duration of the impulse is governed solely by the condition of the gravitational field. It is a value which is unaffected by changes in the experimental set-up, voltage applied or type of gravitator employed. Any number of different kinds of gravitators operating simultaneously on widely different voltages would reveal exactly the same impulse duration at any instant. Over an extended period of time all gravitators would show equal variations in the duration of the impulse.
Figure 4 ~
 
After the gravitator is once fully discharged, its impulse exhausted, the electrical potential must be removed for at least five minutes in order that it may recharge itself and regain its normal gravitic condition. The effect is much like that of discharging and charging a storage battery, except that electricity is handled in a reverse manner. When the duration of the impulse is great the time required for complete recharge is likewise great. The times of discharge and recharge are always proportional. Technically speaking, the exo-gravitic rate and the endo-gravitic rate are proportional to the gravitic capacity.
Summing up the observations of the electro-gravitic pendulum the following characteristics are noted:
APPLIED VOLTAGE determines only the amplitude of the swing.
APPLIED AMPERAGE is only sufficient to overcome leakage and maintain the required voltage through the losses of the dielectric. Thus the total load approximates on 37 ten-millionths of an ampere. It apparently has no other relation to the movement at least from the present state of physics.
MASS of the dielectric is a factor in determining the total energy involved in the impulse. For a given amplitude an increase in mass is productive of an increase in the energy exhibited by the system (E = mg).
DURATION OF THE IMPULSE with electrical conditions maintained is independent of all of the foregoing factors. It is governed solely by external gravitational conditions, positions of the moon, sun, etc., and represents the total energy or summation of energy values which are effective at that instant.
Figure 5 ~
 
GRAVITATIONAL ENERGY LEVELS are observable as the pendulum returns from the maximum deflection to the zero point or vertical position. The pendulum hesitates in its return movement on definite levels or steps. The relative position and influence of these steps vary continuously every minute of the day. One step or energy value corresponds in effect to each cosmic body that is influencing the electrified mass or gravitator. By merely tracing a succession of values over a period of time a fairly intelligible record of the paths and the relative gravitational effects of the moon, sun, etc., may be obtained.
In general then, every material body possesses inherently within its substance separate and distinct energy levels corresponding to the gravitational influences of every other body. these levels are readily revealed as the electro-gravitic impulse dies and as the total gravitic content of the body is slowly released.
Figure 6 ~
 
The gravitator, in all reality, is a very efficient electric motor. Unlike other forms of motors it does not in any way involve the principles of electromagnetism, but instead it utilizes the newer principles of electro-gravitation. A simple gravitator has no moving parts but is apparently capable of moving itself from within itself. it is highly efficient for the reason that it uses no gears, shafts, propellers or wheels in creating its motive power. It has no internal resistance and no observable rise in temperature. Contrary to the common belief that gravitational motors must necessarily be vertical-acting the gravitator, it is found, acts equally well in every conceivable direction.
While the gravitator is at present primarily a scientific instrument, perhaps even an astronomical instrument, it also is rapidly advancing to a position of commercial value. Multi-impulse gravitators weighing hundreds of tons may propel the ocean liners of the future. Smaller and more concentrated units may propel automobiles and even airplanes. Perhaps even the fantastic "space cars" and the promised visit to Mars may be the final outcome. Who can tell?

British Patent # 300,311 (Nov. 15, 1928)
A Method of & an Apparatus or Machine for Producing Force or Motion
I, Thomas Townsend Brown, a citizen of the USA, do hereby declare the nature of this invention and in what manner the same is to be performed, to be particularly described and ascertained in and by the following statement: ---
This invention relates to a method of controlling gravitation and for deriving power therefrom, and to a method of producing linear force or motion. The method is fundamentally electrical.
The invention also relates to machines or apparatus requiring electrical energy that control or influence the gravitational field or the energy of gravitation; also to machines or apparatus requiring electrical energy that exhibit a linear force or motion which is believed to be independent of all frames of reference save that which is at rest relative to the universe taken as a whole, and said linear force or motion is furthermore believed to have no equal and opposite reaction that can be observed by any method commonly known and accepted by the physical science to date.
The invention further relates to machines or apparatus that depend for their force action or motive power on the gravitational field or energy of gravitation that is being controlled or influenced as above stated; also, to machines or apparatus that depend for their force action or motive power on the linear force action or motive power on the linear force or motion exhibited by such machines or apparatus previously mentioned.
The invention further relates to machines and apparatus that derive usable energy or power from the gravitational field or from the energy of gravitation by suitable arrangement, using such machines and apparatus as first above stated as principal agents.
To show the universal adaptability of my novel invention, said method is capable of practical performance and use in connection with motors for automobiles, space cars, ships, railway locomotion, prime movers for power installations, aeronautics. Still another field is the use of the method and means enabling the same to function as a gravitator weight changer. Specific embodiments of the invention will be duly disclosed through the medium of the present Specification.
Referring to the accompanying drawings, forming part of this Specification:
Figure 1 is an elevation, with accompanying descriptive data, broadly illustrating the characteristic or essential elements associated with any machine or apparatus in the use of which the gravitational field or the energy of gravitation is utilized and controlled, or in the use of which linear force or motion may be produced.
 
Figure 2 is a similar view of negative and positive electrodes with an interposed insulating member, constituting an embodiment of the invention.
 
Figure 3 is a similar view of a cellular gravitator composed of a plurality of cell units connected in series, capable of use in carrying the invention into practice.
 
Figure 4 is an elevation of positive and negative electrodes diagrammatically depicted to indicate their relation and use when conveniently placed and disposed within a vacuum tube.
 
Figure 5 and 5' are longitudinal sectional views showing my gravitator units embodies in vacuum tube form wherein heating to incandescence is permitted as by electrical resistance or induction at the negative electrode; and also permitting, where desired, the conducting of excessive heat away from the anode or positive electrode by means of air or water cooling devices.
 
Figure 6 is an elevation or an embodiment of my invention in a rotary or wheel type of motor utilizing the cellular gravitators illustrated in Figure 3.
 
Figure 7 is a view similar to Figure 6 of another wheel form or rotary type of motor involving the use of the gravitator units illustrated in Figure 5, or Figure 5'.
 
Figure 8 is a perspective view partly in section of the cellular gravitator of Figure 3 illustrating the details thereof.
 
Figures 9, 10 and 10a are detail views of the cellular gravitator.
   
Figure 11 is a view similar to Figure 3 with the same idea incorporated in a rotary motor.
 
Figures 12 and 13 are detail views thereof.
 
 
The general showing in Figure 1 will make clear how my method for controlling or influencing the gravitational field or the energy of gravitation, or for producing linear force or motion, is utilized by any machine or apparatus having the characteristics now to be pointed out.
Such a machine has two major parts A and B. These parts may be composed of any material capable of being charged electrically. Mass A and mass B may be termed electrodes A and B respectively. Electrode A is charged negatively with respect to electrode B, or what is substantially the same, electrode B is charged positively with respect to electrode A, or what is usually the case, electrode A has an excess of electrons while electrode B has an excess of protons.
While charged in this manner the total force of A toward B is the sum of force g (due to the normal gravitational field) and force c (due to the imposed electrical field) and force x (due to the resultant of unbalanced gravitational forces caused by the electronegative charge or by the presence of an excess of electrons on electrode A and by the electro-positive charge or the presence of an excess of protons on electrode B.
By the cancellation of similar and opposing forces and by the addition of similar and allied forces the two electrodes taken collectively possess a force 2x in the direction of B. This force 2x shared by both electrodes exists as a tendency of these electrodes to move or accelerate in the direction of the force, that is, A toward B and B away from A. Moreover any machine or apparatus possessing electrodes A and B will exhibit such a lateral acceleration or motion of free to move. Such a motion is believed to be due to the direct control and influence of the energy of gravitation by the electrical energy which exists in the unlike electrical charges present on the affected electrodes. This motion seems to possess no equal or opposite motion that is detectable by the present day mechanics.
It is to be understood that in explaining the theory underlying my invention I am imparting by best understanding of that theory, derived from practical demonstration by the use of appropriate apparatus made in keeping with the teachings of the present Specification. The practice of the method, and apparatus aiding in the performance of the method, have been successful as herein disclosed, and the breadth of my invention and discovery is such as to embrace any corrected or more refined theory that may be found to underlie the phenomena which I believe myself to be the first to discover and put to practical service.
In this Specification I have used terms as "gravitator cells" and "gravitator cellular body" which are words of my own coining in making reference to the particular type of cell I employ in the present invention. Wherever the construction involves a pair of electrodes, separated by an insulating plate or member, such construction complies with the term gravitator cells, and when two or more gravitator cells are connected in series within a body, such will fall within the meaning of gravitator cellular body.
In Figure 2 the electrodes A and B are shown as having placed between them an insulating plate or member C of suitable material, such that the minimum number of electrons or ions may successfully penetrate it. This constitutes a cellular gravitator consisting of one gravitator cell.
A cellular gravitator, consisting of more than one cell, will have the cell units connected in series. This type is illustrated in Figure 3, D being insulating members and E suitable conducting plates. It will be readily appreciated that many different arrangements for cell units, each possessing distinct advantages, may be resorted to.
One arrangement, such as just referred to, is illustrated in Figure 6of the drawings. Here the cells designated F are grouped in spaced relation and placed evenly around the circumference of a wheel G. Each group of cells F possesses a linear acceleration and the wheel rotates as a result of the combined forces. It will be understood that, the cells being spaced substantial distances apart, the separation of adjacent positive and negative elements of separate cells is greater than the separation of the positive and negative elements of any cell, and the materials of which the cells are formed being the more readily affected by the phenomena underlying my invention than the mere space between adjacent cells, any forces existing between positive and negative elements of adjacent cells can never become of sufficient magnitude to neutralize or balance the force created by the respective cells adjoining said spaces. The uses to which such a motor, wheel or rotor may be put are practically limitless, as can be readily understood without further description. The structure may suitably be called a gravitator motor of cellular type.
In keeping with the purpose of my invention, an apparatus may employ the electrodes A and B within a vacuum tube. This aspect of the invention is shown in Figures 4 and 5. In Figure 4 the electrodes are such as are adapted to be placed within a vacuum tube H (Figure 5), the frame and mounting being well within the province of the skilled artisan. Electrons, ions, or thermions can migrate readily from A to B. The construction may be appropriately termed an electronic, ionic, or thermionic gravitator as the case may be.
In certain of the last named types of gravitator units, it is desirable or necessary to heat to incandescence the whole or part of electrode A to obtain better emission of negative thermions or electrons or at least to be able to control that emission by variation in the temperature of said electrode A. Since such variations also influence the magnitude of the longitudinal force or acceleration exhibited by the tube, it proves to be a very convenient method of varying the motion of the tube. The electrode A may be heated to incandescence in any convenient way as by the ordinary methods utilizing electrical resistance or electrical induction, an instance of the former being shown at J (Figure 5), and an instance of the latter at J' (Figure 5'), the vacuum tube in Figure 5' being designated H'.
Moreover, in certain types of the gravitator units, now being considered, it is advantageous or necessary also to conduct away from the anode of positive electrode B excessive heat that may be generated during the operation of tube H or H'. Such cooling is effected externally by means of air or water-cooled flanges that are in thermo connection with the anode, or it is effected internally by passing a stream of water, air or other fluid through a hollow anode made especially for that purpose. Air cooled flanges are illustrated at K (Figure 5) and a hollow anode for the reception of a cooling liquid or fluid (as air or water) as shown at K' (Figure 5'). These electronic, ionic or thermionic gravitator units may be grouped in any form productive of a desired force action or motion. One such form is the arrangement illustrated in Figure 7 where the particular gravitator units in question are indicated at L, disposed around a wheel or rotary motor similarly to the arrangement of the gravitator motor of cellular type shown in Figure 6, the difference being that in Figure 7, the electronic, ionic, or thermionic gravitator units are utilized. This motor may appropriately be designated as a gravitator motor of the electronic, ionic, or thermionic type, respectively.
The gravitator motors of Figure 6 and 7 may be supplied with the necessary electrical energy for the operation and resultant motion thereof from sources outside and independent of the motor itself. In such instances they constitute external or independently excited motors. On the other hand, the motors when capable of creating sufficient power to generate by any method whatsoever all the electrical energy required therein for the operation of said motors are distinguished by being internal or self-excited. Here, it will be understood that the energy created by the operation of the motor may at times be vastly in excess of the energy required to operate the motor. In some instances the ratio may even be as high as a million to one. Inasmuch as any suitable means for supplying the necessary electrical energy, and suitable conducting means for permitting the energy generated by the motor to exert the expected influence on the same may be readily supplied, it is now deemed necessary to illustrate the details herein. In said self-excited motors the energy necessary to overcome the friction or other resistance in the physical structure of the apparatus, and even to accelerate the motors against such resistance, is believed to be derived solely from the gravitational field or the energy of gravitation. Furthermore, said acceleration in the self-excited gravitator motor can be harnessed mechanically so as to produce usable energy or power, said usable energy or power, as aforesaid, being derived from or transferred by the apparatus solely from the energy of gravitation.
The gravitator motors function as a result of the mutual and unidirectional forces exerted by their charged electrodes. The direction of these forces and the resultant motion thereby produced are usually toward the positive electrode. This movement is practically linear. It is this primary action with which I deal.
As has already been pointed out herein, there are two ways in which this primary action can accomplish mechanical work. First, by operating in a linear path as it does naturally, or second, by operating in a curved path. Since the circle is the most easily applied of all the geometric figures, it follows that the rotary form is the most important. While other forms may be built it has been considered necessary to explain and illustrate only the linear and rotary forms.
The linear form of cellular gravitator is illustrated in detail in Figures 8, 9 and 10. It is built up of a number of metallic plates alternated or staggered with sheets of insulating material (Figure 3). Each pair of plates so separated by insulation act as one gravitator cell, and each plate exhibits the desired force laterally. The potential is applied on the end plates and the potential is divided equally among the cells. Each metallic plate in the system possesses a force usually toward the positively charged terminus, and the system as a whole moves or tends to move in that direction. It is a linear motor, and the line of its action is parallel to the line of its electrodes.
There are three general rules to follow in the construction of such motors. First, the insulating sheets should be as thin as possible and yet have a relatively high puncture voltage. It is advisable also to use paraffin-insulated insulators on account of their high specific resistance. Second, the potential difference between any tow metallic plates should be as high as possible and yet be safely under the minimum puncture voltage of the insulator. Third, there should, in most cases, be as many plates as possible in order that the saturation voltage of the system might be raised well above the highest limit upon which the motor is operated. Reference has previously been made to the fact that in the preferred embodiment of the invention herein disclosed the movement is toward the positive electrode. However, it will be clear that motion may be had in the reverse direction determined by what I have just termed "saturation voltage", by which is meant the efficiency peak or maximum of action for that particular type of motor; the theory, as I may describe it, being that as the voltage is increased the force or action increases to a maximum which represents the greatest action in a negative-to-positive direction. If the voltage were increased beyond that maximum the action would decrease to zero and thence to the positive-to-negative direction.
Referring more specifically to Figures 8, 9 and 10, red fiber end plates 1 act as supports and end insulators, and the first metallic plate 2 (for example aluminum) is connected electrically, through the fiber end plate, with the terminal 5. The second insulating sheet 3 is composed, for example, of varnished cambric, sometimes known as "empire cloth". The relative size and arrangement of the metallic plate and insulating sheets are best seen in Figures 9 and 10. A paraffin filler H is placed between adjacent insulating sheets and around the edges of the metallic plates (Figure 10a) and 6 represents a thin paraffin coating over the whole motor proper. 7 and 8 indicate successive layers of "empire cloth" or similar material, and 9 is a binding tape therefore. A thin film of a substance such as black spirit varnish 10 protects and insulates the entire outer surface. A phosphor bronze safety gap element 11 is connected electrically with the terminal (not shown) opposite to the terminal 5. A safety gap element corresponding with the element 11 is electrically connected with the terminal 5, but it has not been shown, in order better to illustrate interior parts. The purpose of the safety gaps is to limit the voltage imposed on the motor to the predetermined maximum and to prevent puncture.
The rotary motor (Figures 11, 12 and 13) comprises broadly speaking, an assembly of a plurality of linear motors, fastened to or bent around the circumference of a wheel. In that case the wheel limits the action of the linear motors to a circle, and the wheel rotates in the manner of a fireworks pinwheel. The illustrations I have given are typical. The forms of Figur3s 6 and 7 have been defined. In Figure 11, the insulating end disk 1a has an opening 2a therethrough for an extension of the shaft 12. The disk 1a is secured to a suitable insulating motor shell, by fiber bolts or screws in any convenient manner, there being another of these disks at the opposite end of the shell, in the same manner as the opposite end plates 1 in Figure 8. The cells are built upon an insulating tube 11a disposed about the shaft-space 3a. Thick insulating wedges 4a separate the four linear motors illustrated. These thick insulating wedges, so-called, are substantially greater in body than the aggregate insulating sheets of the units. In some instances, however, dependent upon materials employed for the charged elements and the insulating members, this need not necessarily be the case. In each motor of this circular series of motors, there are the alternate sheets of insulation 5a associated with the alternate metallic plates 6a; paraffin fillers 71 along the edges of the plates 6a and between the insulating sheets 5a being employed similarly to the use of paraffin in Figure 8. The rotary motor is encircled by metallic (preferably copper) collector rings 10a, which are connected with the end metallic plates of the separate linear motors at 9a and 13 (Figure 12), one of these connections 9 being shown in detail where the insulating tube is cut away at 8 (Figure 11).
It is unnecessary herein to illustrate a housing or bearings because any insulated housing and good ball bearings, conveniently supplied, will complete the motor. The potential is applied to the safety gap mounted on the housing and thence is conducted to the collector rings of the motor by means of sliding brushes.
While I have in the foregoing Specification outlined, in connection with the broader aspects of my invention, certain forms and details, I desire it understood that specific details have been referred to for the purpose of imparting a full and clear understanding of the invention, and not for the purposes of limitation, because it should be apparent that many changes in construction and arrangement, and many embodiments of the invention, other than those illustrated, are possible without departing from the spirit of the invention or the scope of the appended claims.
Having now particularly described and ascertained the nature of my said invention and in what manner the same is to be performed, I declare that what I clam is:
(1) A method of producing force or motion, which comprises the step of aggregating the predominating gravitational lateral or linear forces of positive and negative charges which are so cooperatively related as to eliminate or practically eliminate the effect of similar and opposing forces which said charges exert.
(2) A method of producing force or motion, in which a mechanical or structural part is associated with at lest two electrodes or the like, of which the adjacent electrodes or the like have charges of differing characteristics, the resultant, predominating uni-directional gravitational force of said electrodes or the like being utilized to produce linear force or a motion of said part.
(3) A method according to Claim 1 or 2, in which the predominating force of the charges or electrodes is due to the normal gravitational field and the imposed electrical field.
(4) A method according to Claim 1, 2, or 3, in which the electrodes or other elements bearing the charges are mounted, preferably rigidly, on a body or support adapted to move or exert force in the general direction of alignment of the electrodes or other charge-bearing elements.
(5) A machine or apparatus for producing force or motion, which includes at least two electrodes or like element adapted to be differently charged, so relatively arranged that they produce a combined linear force or motion in the general direction of their alignment.
(6) A machine according to Claim 5, in which the electrodes are mounted, preferably rigidly, on a mechanical or structural part, whereby the predominating uni-directional force obtained from the electrodes or the like is adapted to move said part or to oppose forces tending to move it counter to the direction in which it would be moved by the action of the electrodes or the like.
(7) A machine according to Calim 5 or 6, in which the energy necessary for charging the electrodes of the like is obtained either from the electrodes themselves or from an independent source.
(8) A machine according to Claim 5, 6, or 7, whose force action or gravitational power depends in part on the gravitational field or energy of gravitation, which is controlled or influenced by the action of the electrodes or the like.
(9) A machine according to any of Claims 5 to 8, in the form of a motor including a gravitator cell or gravitator cellular body, substantially as described.
(10) A machine according to Claim 9, in which the gravitator cellular body or an assembly of the gravitator cells is mounted on a wheel-like support, whereby rotation of the latter may be effected, said cells being of electronic, ionic or thermionic type.
(11) A method of controlling or influencing the gravitational field or the energy of gravitation and for deriving energy or power therefrom comprising the use of at least two masses differently electrically charged, whereby the surrounding gravitational field is affected or distorted by the imposed electrical field surrounding said charged masses, resulting in a uni-directional force being exerted on the system of charged masses in the general direction of the alignment of the masses, which system when permitted to move in response to said force in the above mentioned direction derives and accumulates as the result of said movement usable energy or power from the energy of gravitation or the gravitational field which is so controlled, influenced, or distorted.
(12) A method of and the machine or apparatus for producing force or motion by electrically controlling or influencing the gravitational field or energy of gravitation, substantially as hereinbefore described with reference to the accompanying drawings.


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Abstract

The phenomena of dielectrophoresis and electrorotation, collectively referred to as AC electrokinetics, have been used for many years to study, manipulate and separate particles on the cellular (1 mm or more) scale. However, the technique has much to offer the expanding field of nanotechnology, that is the precise manipulation of particles on the nanometre scale. In this paper we present the principles of AC electrokinetics for particle manipulation, review the current state of AC Electrokinetic techniques for the manipulation of particles on the nanometre scale, and consider how these principles may be applied to nanotechnology.
Introduction

There are a number of key events which may be described as the origin of Nanotechnology, such as the coining of the term by Taniguchi [1974] and the publishing of Drexler's visionary Engines of Creation [1986]. However, the widely accepted origin of the concept of nanotechnology is the lecture "There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom" [1960] by Feynman. In this, he considered that by developing scaleable manufacturing system, a device could be made which could make a miniature replica of itself, which could in turn replicate itself in miniature, and so on down to molecular scale, a subject he revisited in the subsequent lecture "Infinitesimal machinery" [1983].

There are two principal approaches to manufacturing on the molecular scale [Drexler 1992]: self-assembly of machines from basic chemical building blocks (the "bottom up" approach) and assembly by manipulating components with much larger devices (the "top down" approach). Whilst the former is considered to be an ideal through which nanotechnology will ultimately be implemented, the latter approach more readily achievable using current technology. Examples of this include the manipulation of single xenon atoms on a silicon surface [Eigler and Schweizer 1990] and the trapping of single 3nm colloidal particles from solution using electrostatic methods [Bezryadin et al. 1997]. In this paper, another group of methods with potential for use in top-down manufacturing - collectively referred to as AC electrokinetics - will be discussed.

AC Electrokinetic techniques such as dielectrophoresis [Jones 1995] and electrorotation [Zimmermann and Neil, 1996] have been utilised for many years for the manipulation, separation and analysis of cellular-scale particles. The phenomenon occurs due to the interaction of induced dipoles with electric fields, and can be used to exhibit a variety of motions including attraction, repulsion and rotation by changing the nature of the dynamic field. In many ways, these forces may be viewed as an electrostatic equivalent to optical tweezers [Ashkin et al. 1986] and optical spanners [Simpson et al. 1997] in that they exert translational and rotational forces on a body due to the interaction between a body and an imposed field gradient.

Recent advances in semiconductor manufacturing technology have enabled researchers to develop electrodes for manipulating macromolecules as small as 9kDa using both attractive [Washizu et al. 1994] and repulsive [Bakewell et al. 1998] AC electrostatic forces, and to concentrate 14nm beads from solution [Müller et al. 1996]. Trapping of single particles such as viruses and 93nm-diameter latex spheres in contactless potential energy wells [Hughes and Morgan 1998] has also been demonstrated. AC Electrokinetics offers advantages over scanning-probe methods of nanoparticle manipulation in that the equipment used is simple, cheap and has no moving parts, relying entirely on the electrostatic interactions between the particle and dynamic electric field. Furthermore, there is theoretical evidence that as manufacturing technology further improves, single particles considerably smaller than presently studied using AC Electrokinetics may be manipulated.

Ultimately, such a technology will have obvious applications for the manipulation of single molecules. Recent studies [Hughes and Morgan 1998] have shown that the trapping efficiency of planar electrode arrays is dependent on a number of factors including the magnitude and dimensions of the electric field and the radius of the particle to be trapped. In this paper we will consider the ways in which AC Electrokinetics can benefit nanotechnology, and the constraints on the technique due to factors such as Brownian motion, heating of the medium, and electrode dimensions as the electrode array is miniaturised to the nanometre scale.
Theory
Dielectrophoresis

Consider a dielectric particle suspended in a spatially non-uniform electric field such as that shown in figure 1. The applied field induces a dipole in the particle; the interaction of the induced dipole with the electric field generates a force. Due to the presence of a field gradient, these forces are not equal and there is a net movement. If the particle is more conductive than the medium around it (as shown in the figure), the dipole aligns with the field and the force acts up the field gradient towards the region of highest electric field. If the particle is less polarisable than the medium, the dipole aligns against the field and the particle is repelled from regions of high electric field [Pethig 1996]. The force is dependent on the induced dipole, and is unaffected by the direction of the electric field, responding only to the field gradient. Since the alignment of the field is irrelevant, this force can also be generated in AC fields which has the advantage of reducing any electrophoretic force (due to any net particle charge) to zero.
   Figure 1. A schematic of a polarisable particle suspended within a point-plane electrode system. When the particle polarises, the interaction between the dipolar charges with the local electric field produces a force. Due to the inhomogeneous nature of the electric field, the force is greater in the side facing the point than that on the side facing the plane, and there is net motion towards the point electrode. This effect is called positive dielectrophoresis. If the particle is less polarisable than the surrounding medium, the dipole will align counter to the field and the particle will be repelled from the high field regions, called negative dielectrophoresis.

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This effect was first termed Dielectrophoresis by Pohl [1978]. The dielectrophoretic force, , acting on a homogeneous, isotropic dielectric sphere, is given by:
     (1)
where r is the particle radius, is the permittivity of the suspending medium, is the Del vector operator, E is the rms. electric field and the real part of the Clausius-Mossotti factor, given by:
     (2)
where and are the complex permittivities of the medium and particle respectively, and with the conductivity, the permittivity and the angular frequency of the applied electric field.

The frequency-dependence of indicates that the force on the particle varies with the frequency. The magnitude of also varies depending on whether the particle is more or less polarisable than the medium. If is positive, then particles move to regions of highest field strength (positive dielectrophoresis); the converse is negative dielectrophoresis where particles are repelled from these regions. By careful construction of the electrode geometry which creates the electric field, it is possible to create electric field morphologies so that potential energy minima are bounded by regions of increasing electric field strengths. In such electrodes, particles experiencing positive dielectrophoresis are attracted to the regions of highest electric field (typically the electrode edges, particularly where adjacent electrodes are close), whilst particles experiencing negative dielectrophoresis are trapped in isolated field minima.
Electrorotation

If a polarisable particle is suspended in a rotating electric field, the induced dipole will form across the particle and rotate in synchrony with the field. However, if the angular velocity of the field is sufficiently large, the time taken for the dipole to form (the relaxation time of the dipole) becomes significant and the dipole will lag behind the field. This results in non-zero angle between field and dipole, which induces a torque in the body and causes it to rotate asynchronously with the field; the rotation can be with or against the direction of rotation of the field, depending of whether the lag is less or more than 180°. This is shown schematically in figure 2.
   Figure 2. A schematic of a polarisable particle suspended in a rotating electric field generated by four electrodes with 90° advancing phase. If the electric field E rotates sufficiently quickly, the induced dipole M will lag behind the electric field by an angle related to the time taken for the dipole to form (the relaxation time). The interaction between the electric field and the lagging dipole induces a torque G in the particle, causing the particle to rotate. This effect is known as electrorotation.

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The general equation for time-averaged torque G experienced by a spherical polarisable particle of radius r suspended in a rotating electric field E is given by:
     (3)
where Im[K(w)] represents the imaginary component of the Clausius-Mossotti factor. The minus sign indicates that the dipole moment lags the electric field. When viscous drag is accounted for, the rotation rate R(w) of the particle is given by [Arnold and Zimmerman 1988]:
     (4)

Note that there are two significant differences between the expression for torque as shown in equation (3) and the force in equation (1). Firstly, the relationship with the electric field is as a function of the square of the electric field rather than of the gradient of the square of the electric field. Secondly, the torque depends on the imaginary rather than the real part of the Clausius-Mossotti factor. This is significant in that a particle may experience both dielectrophoresis and electrorotation simultaneously, and the magnitudes and directions of both are related to the interaction between the dielectric properties of particle and medium. As an example of this, a plot of the frequency-dependence of a solid particle exhibiting a single dielectric dispersion is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3. A plot of the real (solid line) and imaginary (dotted line) parts of the Clausius-Mossotti factor. The magnitude and signs of the real and imaginary parts govern the magnitude and direction of the dielectrophoretic force and electrorotational torque respectively.
Travelling-Wave Dielectrophoresis

Travelling-wave dielectrophoresis is a linear analogue of electrorotation; instead of electrodes being arranged in a circle, they are laid out as "tracks", but the relationship of phases (each electrode being 90o phase advanced from the last) remains. This produces an electric field wave which "travels" along the electrodes [Hughes et al. 1996]. When this wave interacts with a polarisable particle, a dipole is induced which moved with the electric field peak. If the travelling wave is moving sufficiently quickly, the dipole will lag behind the field in a similar manner to that observed in electrorotation. However, as the wave is travelling in a linear (rather than rotational) manner, the result is the induction of a force rather than a torque, with particles moving along the electrodes like a train travelling along tracks. This is demonstrated schematically in figure 4.

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Figure 4. A schematic showing a polarisable particle suspended in a travelling electric field generated by electrodes on which the applied potential is 90° phase-advanced with respect to the electrode to its left. If the electric field E moves sufficiently quickly, the induced dipole M will lag behind the electric field , inducing a force F in the particle. This causes the particle to move along the electrodes, a phenomenon known as travelling-wave dielectrophoresis.

The value of the force FTWDis given by equation (5) [Huang et al. 1992]:
   (5)
where l is the wavelength of the travelling wave. This phenomenon was first observed by Batchelder [1983]. However, it remained largely unexplored until work by Masuda et al. [1987] on using synchronously induced motion in low frequency travelling fields that travelling wave dielectrophoresis became significant. This work led to Fuhr et al. [1991] effectively rediscovering asynchronous travelling wave dielectrophoresis. Since then, a large corpus of study has been conducted on this technique, including theoretical studies (Huang et al. [1993]; Hughes et al. [1996]) and demonstrations of practical devices for electrostatic pumping (e.g. Fuhr et al. 1994) and biotechnological applications (e.g. Morgan et al. [1997])
Electrode configurations

In practice, dielectrophoretic manipulation of particles is performed on planar electrode arrays. Such electrode arrays employ patterned electrodes fabricated of gold or a similar conductor deposited on glass or silicon. A common electrode configuration used in AC Electrokinetics research is a quadrupole arrangement where four electrodes point towards a central enclosed region [Huang and Pethig 1991], as shown in the schematic in figure 5.
   Figure 5. A schematic of typical quadrupole electrode microstructures used in dielectrophoresis experiments. The electrodes are typically fabricated of gold on a glass microscope slide. The gap between opposing electrodes in the centre of the array is typically of the order 10-50 µm across, but can be as small as 500nm or as large as 1mm. To induce dielectrophoretic motion in particles suspended near the electrode array, electrodes would be energised such that a and c are of the same phase, and b and d are in antiphase to them. To cause electrorotation in particles within the central gap, electrodes b, c and d would be phase-shifted by 90°, 180° and 270° with respect to electrode a.

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These electrodes may be of a variety of designs, according to the degree of field non-uniformity required [Hughes 1998]. The advantage with this arrangement is twofold. Firstly, electrodes can easily be used for dielectrophoresis, electrorotation or both. By energising the electrodes such that the phase angle of applied AC field between adjacent electrodes is 180°, particles will experience only dielectrophoresis. If the phase angle is reduced such that adjacent electrodes differ by 90°, the particle will experience both electrorotation and dielectrophoresis. The second advantage of the quadrupole design is that at the centre of the electrode array, there exists a well-defined electric field minimum, which is surrounded by well-defined field maxima at the electrode edges. This definition is advantageous when attempting to manipulate nanometre-sized particles, where Brownian motion is significant and may be sufficient to enable particles to "escape" from a weak forcefield "trap". This is illustrated in figure 6, which shows a simulation of the electric field in a plane 5 µm above the plane of the electrodes shown in figure 5. The dark circular region at the centre of the electrode array is the field minimum in which particles become trapped by the surrounding ring of high field gradient. The field maximum extends along the inter-electrode gaps, where particles will accumulate by positive dielectrophoresis.
   Figure 6. A simulation of the electric field in the plane 5 µm above the electrode array shown in figure 5. The simulation was performed using a Method of Moments software suite developed by the author at the University of Wales at Bangor. As can be seen, there is an electric field minimum (dark region) at the centre of the electrode array, surrounded by a ring of high electric field gradient. Particles experiencing negative dielectrophoresis are repelled into this minimum and become trapped. The electric field strength is high (white regions) along the electrode edges, where particles collect by positive dielectrophoresis.

Advances in fabrication technology such as the use of electron beam lithography have allowed the manufacture of electrodes with feature sizes of the order 100 nm, covering many square cm. By reducing the size of inter-electrode gaps, electric fields of 107 Vm-1 can be generated by applying 10V across a 1 µm inter-electrode gap. More advanced dielectrophoretic traps have been developed [Schnelle et al. 1993] in which two sets of electrodes were stacked so as to form an octopole field "cage". This type of geometry has allowed the controlled manipulation of populations of particles in all 3 dimensions.
Applications to Nanotechnology
Concentration of colloids from solution

Since the force experienced by a particle undergoing dielectrophoresis scales as a function of the particle volume, it was believed for many years that a lower threshold of particle size existed, below which the dielectrophoretic force would be overcome by Brownian motion. It was held that to increase the force would require electric fields of such magnitude that local medium heating would increase local fluid flow, again acting to prevent dielectrophoretic manipulation. As electrode fabrication techniques were relatively crude, generating electric fields of sufficient magnitude required large potentials to be applied across large inter-electrode volumes, and consequently particles with diameters less than about 1 µm could not be trapped. Indeed, Pohl [1978] speculated that particles smaller 500nm would require excessively large electric fields to trap against the action of Brownian motion.

The first group to break this threshold was that of Washizu and co-workers [1994] who used positive dielectrophoresis to precipitate DNA and proteins as small as 25 kDa. This step downward in size was accelerated by improvements in technologies for electrode fabrication, principally the use of electron beam fabrication. This renewed interest in manipulation of sub-micron particles, and subsequent work by Fuhr and co-workers [Fuhr 1995; Müller et al. 1996] and Green et al. [1995, 1997] demonstrated that viruses of 100 nm diameter could be manipulated using negative dielectrophoresis. It was also demonstrated that latex spheres of 14 nm diameter could be trapped by either positive or negative dielectrophoresis, as demonstrated by Müller et al. [1996] and reproduced here in figure 7. Subsequent work by Hughes and co-workers demonstrated that by varying the frequency of the applied electric field, Herpes viruses can be trapped using either positive or negative electric fields [1998]. Another study demonstrated that molecules of the 68 kDa-protein avidin can be concentrated from solution by both positive and negative dielectrophoresis [Bakewell et al. 1998].

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Figure 7. A photograph of 14 nm diameter, fluorescently labelled latex spheres precipitated from an aqueous solution (conductivity adjusted to 2.5 mSm-1 by addition of KCl) by dielectrophoresis. The electrodes were of similar construction to those shown in figure 5, with 500 nm between adjacent electrodes and 2 µm across the inter-electrode gap. In photograph (a), the spheres collect in the high-field regions between the electrode edges when a 8Vpp, 2MHz signal is applied. In photograph (b) the spheres collect in a ball at the centre of the trap, which is levitated a few µm above the electrode plane when the applied signal is changed to 10Vpp, 10MHz. Collection of particles is rapid and begins immediately after the field is applied. This experiment was performed at the Humboldt University of Berlin, reproduced with permission. Taken from Müller et al. [1996]

The most obvious nanotechnological application of this technique is in the concentrating of "parts" of molecular machinery to one site. This could be either in the form of bringing together of two interlocking molecules in a highly dilute solution, or collecting "fuel" for a nanomachine from solution. Furthermore, by attracting microspheres and colloidal gold particles which have been functionalised using antibodies, Velev and Kaler [1999] have used dielectrophoresis to construct microscopic biosensors by "stacking" particles of different types, which bind on contact.
Manipulation of single nanoparticles

In 1996, Müller et al. Demonstrated that a single 1 µm latex sphere could be trapped by negative dielectrophoresis, and subsequently repeated the experiment with a latex sphere of 650 nm diameter. Further work by Hughes and Morgan [1998] demonstrated that single Herpes viruses, viral capsids and latex spheres as small as 93 nm diameter could be held in stable traps using negative dielectrophoresis, as shown in figure 8. This study also considered in some detail the mathematical conditions for a particle to be trapped by either positive or negative dielectrophoresis, concluding that for stable trapping, an approximate minimum particle radius r is given by the expression:

     (5)

where k is Bolzmann's constant, T is the temperature, and D d is the thickness of the electric field barrier of magnitude , E2. Since the factors D d and E2 are related to the size of the electrode array, they place limits on the minimum size of particle an array can be used to manipulate. Studies by Hughes et al. indicated that for electrode structures with 5Vp-p applied to electrodes with 6 µm between opposing electrodes and 2 µm between adjacent electrodes, the minimum stable trapping radius for single particle is approximately 30 nm. This research indicated that the key variable governing D d is the size of the centre of the trap, which in that research was an area of approximately 5 µm radius centred on the middle of the electrodes. Therefore it should theoretically be possible to reduce the whole array to this size; this would benefit the use of this technique in nanotechnology since the manipulator would be of the order of a few microns across. Furthermore, since D d scales linearly with distance and E2 scales as the inverse cube of distance, equation (5) indicates that reducing the size of the trap by a factor x whilst maintaining the same activating potentials will increase the efficiency of the trap by reducing the minimum trappable particle radius by a factor x2/3.
   Figure 8. A pseudo-3D image of a single 93nm latex sphere suspended in a trap by negative dielectrophoresis, using an electrode structure similar to that shown in figure 5, with 6 µm between opposing electrode tips and 2 µm between adjacent electrodes. The medium conductivity was adjusted to 5mSm-1 by addition of EDTA, and the applied signal was 5Vpp, 15 MHz. The bead occupies the space at the point of the "spike" at the centre of the electrode structure. The vertical dimension was extracted from light emission data from fluorescence micrographs. This experiment was performed at the University of Glasgow, reproduced with permission. Taken from Hughes and Morgan [1998]

Due to the fact that this trapping is contactless, with particles being repelled from the electrode edges, particles may move upwards and will eventually leave the trap. In order to prevent this happening closed field cages, such as those fabricated by Schnelle et al. [1996] must be employed. An octopole cage of sufficiently small dimension could in theory allow full 3D manipulation of single particles of less than 30 nm diameter, and has been demonstrated to function for aggregates of 14 nm particles. The technology to produce such electrodes for single-molecule manipulation exists, but the principal problem to be overcome is the observation of the trapped particle.

An alternative approach would be to use an AFM tip to generate field non-uniformity, and use positive dielectrophoresis to attract particles to it. These could be positioned by the AFM and then "released" by changing the frequency of the signal to the AFM tip so as to repel the particles from it. The principle behind this - using positive dielectrophoresis to attract particles to a 3D, microscopic needle tip - has already been demonstrated [Alimova et al. 1999] to coat silicon tips with nanodiamond.
Particle separation

In 1992 Gascoyne et al. demonstrated that positive and negative dielectrophoresis could be used to separate a heterogeneous population of normal and leukaemic murine erythrocytes into two separate populations. Since the direction of the induced dielectrophoretic force is determined by the dielectric properties of the particle, populations of particles having different dielectric properties can be induced to move in different directions by careful choice of applied field frequency and medium conductivity. Examples of this work in the submicrometre range have been demonstrated by Morgan et al. [1999] in the separation of a mixture of Herpes Simplex and Tobacco Mosaic viruses into two distinct populations and the separation of latex spheres of different sizes, or of similar size but different surface treatments. Another example of this is the separation of 93nm diameter latex spheres according to small variations in the surface charge of the spheres, as demonstrated by Green and Morgan [1997].

In a nanotechnological context, the dielectrophoretic separation of particles allows for the manufacture of a tuneable electrostatic filter. By altering the frequency of the applied electric field, particles for two populations can be either both attracted to the electrode array, both repelled from it, or one can be attracted whilst the other is repelled. Since the effect is volumetric - repulsion acts for several microns into the solution, according to the magnitude of the electric field - the result is to alter the local concentration of the two particle types dramatically.
Particle Transport

Whilst dielectrophoresis is useful for attracting particles to specific points, there are applications which require the moving of particles between one position and another. This requirement may be to relocate particles for processing, for separation purposes, or to gather in particles from a larger volume than can be achieved by conventional dielectrophoresis alone. Two means of particle transport have been demonstrated in the literature. Firstly, conventional dielectrophoresis has been used to move 100 nm latex spheres in a thermal ratchet, where dielectrophoresis is used to rectify the motion of particles induced by Brownian motion [Rousselet et al. 1994]. The induced motion can be either towards or against the ratchet potential, according to whether particles experience positive or negative dielectrophoresis, or the time between activation of ratcheting pulses [Chauwin et al. 1995]. This technique has the advantage that since only two phases are required, the electrodes for inducing such motion are easy to fabricate.

The alternative, and more popular, means of transporting particles using AC electrokinetics is by the application of travelling-wave dielectrophoresis. Whilst the majority of work on travelling-wave dielectrophoresis has concerned micrometre-sized objects such as blood cells [Morgan et al. 1997], some work has been performed on the concentration of particles on a surface using so-called "meander" electrodes [Fuhr et al. 1994b]. These structures use four electrodes in a series of interlocking spirals to generate a travelling wave; at the centre of the spiral, the electrodes form a quadrupole-type electrode array. It has been demonstrated that by careful manipulation of the amplitudes of the potentials on these electrode structures, it is possible to "steer" the motion of particles across the array. Tools such as these could be used as the basis for "conveyor belts" for factories on a chip, wherein different chemical processes may be carried out of the same chip, with operations performed by electrostatic or chemical means and the resultant output transferred to a new process by AC Electrokinetic means [Ward 1997].
Electrorotation

Electrorotation was first examined scientifically in the early 1960s [e.g. Teixeira-Pinto et al. 1960] but was most fully explored by Arnold and Zimmermann [1982; 1988], who established the technique for direct measurement of the value of K(w) by measuring the time taken for a particle to rotate. This application has little bearing to nanotechnology, not least due to the difficulty of seeing such small particles rotate, but electrorotation may be useful as a means of inducing rotation in molecular machinery. Recent work by Berry and Berg [1999] has involved using electrorotation to drive the molecular motor of E. Coli bacteria backwards at speeds of up to 2,000 Hz. Since the electrodes involved in that work were applying 10 V across inter-electrode gaps of 50 µm or more, considerably higher fields (and hence induced torques) could be applied with electrodes with inter-electrode gaps of the order of 1 µm. If one considers that electrorotation is an electrostatic equivalent of laser spanners [Simpson et al. 1997], then there exists a number of applications within current nanotechnological thought to which electrorotation might be applied. There are a number of advantages that favour electrorotation over its optical equivalent; most notable advantages are that electrorotation-induced torque is easily controlled by altering the frequency of the electric field, and that there does not need to be a direct optical path to the part to be manipulated. Electrorotation has been demonstrated for the induction of torque in micron-scale motors by Hagedorn et al. [1994].
Brownian motion, conduction and convection

Aside from the engineering of electrodes small enough to generate large electric field non-uniformity, there are other factors that present problems with scaling AC Electrokinetic techniques from the micrometre to nanometre scale. These include Brownian motion induced by thermal noise in the surrounding medium and effects of conduction and convection of the medium induced by the high electric fields used for manipulating colloidal particles. For sufficiently high concentrations of particles, a diffusion force would also be significant; however, the majority of work on dielectrophoresis has used sufficiently low concentrations of particles for each particle to be regarded as single and isolated.

Brownian motion due to thermal noise is well documented [Einstein 1956] and a number of studies have considered the force required to trap particles against Brownian motion [Pohl 1978; Washizu et al. 1994; Hughes and Morgan 1998]. Experimental studies with proteins [Washizu et al. 1994; Bakewell et al. 1998] have demonstrated that Brownian motion does not prevent the trapping particles as small as 68 kDa (equivalent to a cube 6 nm along a face) by negative dielectrophoresis, or 25 kDa by positive dielectrophoresis. Recent studies (Ramos et al. [1998] Green et al. [1999]) on the forces involved in dielectrophoretic manipulation of sub-micrometre particles examined the balance of Brownian motion and dielectrophoretic forces by considering the amount of time required to determine, with 99.7% confidence (3 standard deviations) that an observed force is due to dielectrophoresis. Any force applied to a particle will ultimately result in what Ramos et al. [1998] describes as "observable deterministic motion", but if the force is small the time taken to observe it may be of the order of years! However, the forces used in the experiments described in the literature are sufficiently large for the applied force to observably overcome Brownian motion to be of the order of a second or (often significantly) less. It may ultimately be possible to manipulate single small particles precisely using dielectrophoretic forces, but this will be more difficult to achieve for very small colloids and work needs to be done to study this.

Other disruptive effects are caused by the presence of very high electric fields covering small areas of the electrode array, creating electrohydrodynamic (EHD) motion in the fluid. An in-depth study of this subject has been conducted by Ramos et al. [1998], and presented in summary form by Green et al. [1999]. In these works, the authors demonstrated that there are two major EHD forces which are significant in driving fluid flow around electrodes, those being electrothermal and electroosmotic. The former force is due to localised heating of the medium causing discontinuities of medium conductivity and permittivity, which was found to be insignificant due to the small volumes these discontinities occupy (as the electrodes are so small). The latter force is due to the interaction of the tangential electric field with the diffuse double layer above the electrode surfaces. This creates a fluid pumping action, the magnitude of which can be several orders of magnitude larger than the dielectrophoretic force. However, careful electrode design can allow the EHD forces to be used as an aid to particle manipulation [Green and Morgan 1998].
Conclusions

The techniques of AC Electrokinetics, principally dielectrophoresis and electrorotation, have much to offer the expanding science of nanotechnology. Whereas dielectrophoretic methods have been applied to the manipulation of objects in the micro-scale, recent work shows that the technique is applicable to the manipulation of nano-scale particles. This opens a wide range of potential applications for AC electrokinetics to the development of mainstream nanotechnology.

The fundamental challenge in the advancement of nanotechnology is the development of precision tools for the manipulation of macromolecules in solution phase. The techniques presented in this paper go some way to addressing this by providing tools for the trapping, manipulation and separation of biomolecules and small latex spheres using tools (electrodes) on the micrometre scale. There exist a number of avenues down which AC electrokinetics can be developed to meet the needs of nanotechnology more readily. These include the design of electrodes for trapping of smaller single particles, increasing the precision to which particles may be trapped, and examining the extent to which particles may be manoeuvred within the trap by alteration of the electric field.
Acknowledgements

The author would like to thank Dr. Hywel Morgan of the University of Glasgow and Dr Thomas Schnelle of the Humboldt University of Berlin for the experimental photographs presented in this paper, and Dr. Nicolas Green of the University of Seville for valuable discussions.

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